The rocket’s noise
The ghost’s moan

Apostrophes are used to form the possessive plural of a regular noun:

The birds’ droppings
The ants’ tunnels

Irregular nouns with plurals not ending in s, use apostrophes:

The Men’s Room
The geese’s flight

Possessive pronouns do not use apostrophes: his, hers, its, whose

Contractions do use apostrophes : don’t, won’t, can’t, she’s, he’s, it’s

Joint possessions use an apostrophe in the last name:

Jane and Bill’s house
Smith and Wesson’s revolvers

Plural possessions that are not joint-use an apostrophe in each name:

doctor’s and dentist’s bills
Nixon’s and Jefferson’s political ethics

Compound nouns add apostrophes after the last noun to indicate possession:

The son-in-law’s car
The sons-in-law’s cars

Apostrophes are used to designate letters and words by themselves or simply to avoid confusion:

Mind your p’s and q’s
Know the do’s and don’ts

Apostrophes are optional in the case of letter combinations where the intent is clear:

GIs or GI’s, ABCs or ABC’s, IOUs or IOU’s

Apostrophes are used to indicate missing letters except in the case of recognized abbreviations:

Three o’clock
Intl.

In 1492, Columbus [1450-1522] sailed the ocean blue.

Brackets are used to enclose sic indicating an error in spelling quoted exactly:

A new copy shop will be openning [sic] here soon.

Punctuation marks are not needed to set off bracketed material.

San Francisco, Georgia, France
The U.S. Government is different from many other governments.

Capitalize the first letter of adjectives derived from proper nouns:

Iranian, Pepsi, Darwinism

Capitalize the first letter of a sentence whether or not complete:

A moaning ghost is not a welcome sight.
As an afterthought:  Attics should be aired out often.
On my way to the forum

Capitalize the first letter of all principal words in titles. Articles, conjunctions, and prepositions in titles are not capitalized.

The Ghost and Mrs. Muir

Capitalize the first letter of titles if they precede names or identify individuals:

Captain Johnson suggested we abandon ship.
The Captain was drunk again.
Some captains are cowardly.

Correct examples:


Living in sun, sand, and sea air
The Sun was hot today and the sand was burning.
And the sea shall give up
The Mediterranean Sea is shallow.

We continued to the northwest.
The Northwest has heavy rainfall.
Steer NW. by N.

During the Summer of ‘42
All that summer

Breakfast is served at 6:00 a.m. or 6:00 A.M.
Born1948 A.D.

Types of clauses are:

• Independent:  Can actually be their own sentence.
• Dependent:  Require the rest of the sentence to make sense.
• Restrictive: Could not be omitted.
• Nonrestrictive: Could be omitted.
• Coordinate:  Clauses connected by a conjunction.

Commas are used to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series.  Use of the comma before the conjunction at the end of the series is a matter of preference:

words, phrases, and clauses
words, phrases and clauses

Commas are used to set off nonrestrictive phrases, clauses, and elements. Nonrestrictive elements are those that could be left out without destroying logical sense:

The vampire, who was exhausted, rested at last.
Vampires are, after all, driven people.

Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements that are necessary to the logic of the sentence:

Vampires rest after a long night.
Only vampires who are satiated sleep at night.

Commas set off a special nonrestrictive element called an appositive:

I woke the vampire, Countess Dracula.

Close, restrictive appositives do not require commas:

The vampire countess Dracula was awake early.

Negative appositives require commas:

 The Countess, not the Count, was the real vampire.

Commas are always used to separate long compound sentences connected by a conjunction:

The vampires had been hunting all night, and when they returned they were tired.
Vampires are either fantastic talkers, or they are self-centered and boorish.
He was a talkative vampire, but he was young and unsure.

Discretion is allowed in the case of short compound sentence:

The vampire returned late and they were tired.
Vampires are either talkers or they are muggers.
He was humorous but he was crude.

Commas are used to enclose parenthetical words and phrases:

Vampires, who are after all immortal, sometimes evidence great breadth of knowledge.
Countess Dracula, the comedian, likes red lipstick shades.

If the sentence structure and sense suggest non-parenthetical usage, the comma may be omitted:

He was in any case an unattractive vampire.
I decided therefore to go home early.

Commas are used to designate direct address:

Good evening, Countess Dracula.
How nice to see you, Mr. Chaney.

Commas are used to set off a quotation in a sentence:

Countess Dracula exclaimed, “What a beautiful full moon”!
“Looks foggy and cold,” said the Count.

Commas are not used when a word or phrase is enclosed in quotation marks or italicized:

I wouldn’t say “bloodthirsty” was an apt description.
Sanguinary may be more accurate.

Commas are used to punctuate inverted names and to separate titles from names:

Chaney, Lon, Jr. 
Amy Dracula, Queen of the Vampires.

Commas are used to set off elements of an address, but not before zip codes:

123 Main Street, Belleville, IL 62223

Commas are used in dates: March 17, 2003

Commas may be omitted from month-year expressions:

March 1980 was a fateful month.

Commas are used for the sake of clarity:

What it is, is madness
Che sera, sera.

In formal writing, like is an adjective or a verb and not a conjunction:

WRONG: The new department functions like a distribution center.
RIGHT: The new department functions as a distribution center.
WRONG: He felt like his group had not been consulted.
RIGHT. He felt as if his group had not been consulted.
RIGHT: Feel as if I’m ready to dance.
RIGHT: As if, wow.

Correlative conjunctions must accompany the words they connect in parallel construction:

WRONG: Androids neither eat nor do they sleep.
RIGHT: Androids neither eat nor sleep.
WRONG: Androids are both diligent and they are well behaved.
RIGHT: Androids are both diligent and well behaved.

Commas are not used beforeconjunctions unless they connect complete statements:

WRONG: Vampires are excellent hosts, but late sleepers.
RIGHT: Vampires are excellent hosts but late sleepers.
but they sleep late.

Dashes are used in place of commas or parentheses to designate an abrupt change or to set off parenthetical expressions. A dash is a stronger form of punctuation,and should not be over used.

Correct examples:

Androids have small appetites – they have no stomachs.
The vampires were tired – they hunted all night – and they slept.
Vampires peculiarities – they sleep all day, they have no reflection in mirrors, and they shrink from crosses – sometimes give them away.

Dashes mark a broken or incomplete spoken sentence:

The countess tried to interrupt, “You know perfectly well I –“

Words are divided:

At syllables:

transub- stantiate
sanqui-nary
face-tious

At hyphens:


thirty- something
God-forsaken
fine-tooth

At double consonants:


gar- rolous
begin- ning
submis- sion

Unless the root word ends in double consonants:


cross- over
add- tion
egg- head

At prefixes or suffixes:


mis- aligned
unfaith- ful
blood- less

Ellipsis dots [. . .] are used, as indicated above, to indicate missing words.  Since they have given birth to an entire school of “three dot journalism” they are included here.

“Well,” the countess explained, “If I had my way . . .”

Ellipsis dots may be used to indicate omission of a paragraph or paragraphs:

“which was unusual.
. . .Afterwards we all welcomed the warm fire and a good night’s rest.”

Fire!
Look Out!
How Lovely!

Exclamation marks replace question marks in exclamatory questions, unless clarity demands the question mark:

“Must I be so deprived!” the countess demanded.
What’s going on here!

The hole-in-the-wall gang was notorious.
The Countess thinks once-in-a-lifetime experiences are overrated.

Hyphens are used in a compound adjective series that precedes the noun, even if the compound word is omitted:

One-, five-, and nine-o’clock feedings.
Pre-, post-, and during-lunch drinking.

Hyphens are used to divide words.  (see Dividing Words)

Hyphens are used in fractions and numbers from 21 to 99:

five-eighths
three-sixteenths
You must be twenty-one.
“Thank you,” Ninety-nine.”

Hyphens are used in hyphenated names:

Mrs.Barkeley-Smith

Hyphens are used in prefix compounded proper names:

Inter-American
pre-Raphaelite

Do not use hyphens in civil and military titles:

Deputy Mayor Jones
Vice Admiral Smith

Do not use hyphens after words ending in ly:

fully developed
hardly noticed

Proper compound names generally do not use hyphens:

North American 
Fifty Second Street

Note that hyphenation tends to disappear with usage:  (unamerican or un-American; well known author or well-known author). Note also that hyphenation should be used for clarity within the author’s discretion: (disservice or dis-serivce).  Most dictionaries will advise that many hyphenation rules are arbitrary.

In vampire encounters, do not expose your neck.
Young ghosts should never be seated with new guests.

Italics are used to designate a word as a word:

Time and usage have modified the meaning of gay.
The exact etymology of poltergeist is obscure.

Italics are used for proper titles of books, plays, epic poems, albums, motion pictures, etc:

Dances with Wolves had stunning visual effects.
Mary Shelley wrote Dracula.

Italics are not used for songs, chapters, short stories, and divisions of major works.  These lower titles are enclosed in quotes:

“Satisfaction” was included in The Rolling Stones’ Out of our Heads, 1965.
Hemingway’s “Big Two-Hearted River” was first published in This Quarter, Vol 1 (May, 1925)

Italics are used for proper names of vessels, trains, and airplanes:

Rearranging the furniture on the deck of the Titanic.
Starship Enterprise shall boldly go.
We flew on a DC-10, The Spirit of Weehawken.

Italics are used for foreign words and phrases that are not anglicized. Note this decision is arbitrary and discretion is allowed:

The hostile takeover was then a fait accompli.
The Countess considers John her beau ideal.

Italics are used for scientific names of genus and specie:

*Italics are represented in typing by underlining.

*Punctuation immediately following italics is italicized.

The Countess claimed 11 conquests that year.
The Count thought nine was a more valid number.

Numbers in a series should use consistent forms; 

Whether there were three or three thousand
She wasn’t clear:  8, 10, 12, or 20

Numbers beginning a sentence should be written unless they are years (see below):

Twenty times a year
1947 was a very good year

Fractions can be confusing and should be avoided where possible:

20.5 rather than 20 1/2

When fractions modify a noun, the hyphen is used and the noun is always singular:

Thirteen 1 3/8-inch bolts

Avoid nd, th, ths, or of an:

Use 1/8, not 1/8th
Use 1/2 cup, not 1/2 of a cup.

Written fractions are hyphenated:

One-half cup

Addresses may combine written numbers and figures:

156 Forty-Fifth Street
One Park Avenue
220 121st Street

Time of day expressed in figures uses colons to separate hours, minutes, and seconds:

11:33:52 A.M.
12:30 p.m.

Written hours and minutes are hyphenated:

Eight-thirty A.M.
Eleven-fifteen, on the dot.

Large dollar amounts are usually written:

12.5 billion
121 billion dollar deficit

Written and numeric currency is used only in a contract or other legal document:

The sum of one dollar ($1.00)
Four thousand, five hundred twenty four dollars and fifteen cents ($4,524.15)

In formal writing, A.D. Precedes the year, and B.C. follows the year:

A.D. 547
1,000,000 B.C.

Hyphens are used to indicate continuity between years:

1860-1865
1860-65
FY 1990-91

Commas are used to indicate separate years:

1987, 1988, 1990
1987, 88, 90

Dates are written as:

May 10, 1969 or Sept. 12, 1980 
On May 10, 1969, the QP baseball team began spring practice.  (In a sentence, commas should follow the year also.) 
May 10th, 1969

European and some other international dates are expressed as:

10 May 1969
Not: 10, May, 1969

Abbreviated dates (5/1/03) are used only in informal correspondence and memos.

Temperatures should be followed by F. for Fahrenheit or Abs. for Absolute. Degrees may use the abbreviation deg., unless you have a superscript 0.  Metric system does not have punctuation. English system must be punctuated.

89 deg.F.
347 deg.Abs.

The Count (he had not slept for 48 hours) was testy.

Commas or dashes may indicate shorter or more minor inclusions:

The Count, irritated by the Countess, replied swiftly.
The Count – not to be trifled with – replied angrily.

If parentheses are used within a sentence, no punctuation is used before the parentheses.

Parenthetical sentences, outside other sentences, are capitalized and punctuated with the parentheses:

The Countess realized time was on her side. (Vampires are essentially immortal.) She, therefore . . .

Parenthetical sentences within other sentences, are not capitalized or punctuated within the parentheses unless a question mark or exclamation point is required:

The Countess was pensive (she realized she was seriously infatuated with a younger man) and gazed for a long time at the new moon.
Her mind wandered over the past (would she have succumbed 200 years ago?), reviewing ages of affairs and deceits.

Parentheses are used in legal documents to enclose numeric repetitions:

The sum of thirty-five dollars ($35.00)
The sum of thirty-five (35) dollars

The invitation ended with BYOD (Bring Your Own Drinks).

Parentheses are used to enclose omitted or alternative terms:

Please bring completed form(s) to the counter.

Periods are used at the end of a sentence indicating an order or a request (imperative sentence):

May I have your attention.
Would you all please settle down.

Emphatic orders and requests take exclamation points:

Attention please!
Settle down!

Periods are used at the end of abbreviated words or initials unless usage eliminates them:

Washington Tech. Univ. is in Washington.
T.S. Elliot is my favorite poet.
FDR and JFK were Democrats.

Periods are used at the end of abbreviated words followed by a semicolon:

The Countess had a busy P.M.; invitations mailed, hair brushed, transformations practiced.

Periods are not used at the end of abbreviated words followed by a period or a colon:

The Countess had a busy P.M.
The Countess had a busy P.M: mailing invitations, brushing her hair, and practicing transformations.

Periods are not used after two initial state abbreviations:

Belleville, IL 62223

Periods are not used in initials indicating a letter author and typist:

JMM:jmb
JMM/JMB

Periods are not used after roman numerals unless they form outlines or lists:

John Charles Thomas III
I. Wake Up
II. Get out of bed.

Periods are used inside parentheses and quotations when they indicate a complete sentence enclosed:

The Count urged a little more decorum.  (She had returned with disheveled hair and torn stockings.)
“We only live once.” the Countess replied.

*See QUOTES for punctuation of quotations.

Bat Bats	Ghoul  Ghouls	Moan  Moans
Hex   Hexes	Blush Blushes	Dress  Dresses

Nouns ending in consonant-y usually form their plural with ies.

Cry  Cries

Baby Babies

Lady  Ladies

Nouns ending in vowel-y usually form their plurals with s:

Day Days

Key  Keys

Toy  Toys

Other plural forms include:

Tooth  Teeth

Beef  Beeves

Genus  Genera

*Irregularities in plural formation are so common and of such variety that a good dictionary is essential when in doubt.

WRONG: The bat flew off of the branch.
off the branch.

WRONG: He trailed respectfully in back of her.
BETTER: He trailed respectfully behind her.

WRONG: I can’t help from wonder.
ALLOWED: I can’t help butwonder.
BETTER: I can’t help wonder.

WRONG: She was angry at me.
BETTER:She was angry with me.

*General usage calls for at an object or thing; with a person.

WRONG: Where did that cape get to?
BETTER: Where did that cape go?

*It used to be held improper to end a sentence with a preposition until Winston Church destroyed this maxim with his famous quote:  This is the sort of English up with which I will not put.  It still is considered poor form.

From a bewildering array of types, classes, and cases, be guided by the following:

Pronouns can be subjects:

 I,you, he, she, it, we, and they:
It is I.
You are there.
It was she who returned.
The vampires, he along with them . . .

Pronouns can be objects: me, you, him, her, it, us, and them:


Wakeme when it’s over.
Between you and me, they are a mess.
They invited her and me to dinner.
He invited George and them. (BETTER:  He invited George and the others.)
It was either them or us.

Pronouns can be possessive: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, and theirs.


The fault is ours.
Theirs was the credit.
Its ambience was exquisite.
My heart is no longer mine.

As subjects: who, whoever, whom, whomever, and whose.


Who should I say called?
Whoever it is; I’m out.
Whose idea was this?

As objects (of verbs or prepositions):


To whom am I speaking?
I accuse whoever is guilty.
The woman whom I spoke to . . . (BETTER: The woman I spoke to . . . )

As compound indefinites: anyone, everyone, something, somebody, etc.


Are formed as one word:  Somebody say something!

Unless they precede a prepositional phrase:

Everyone in the hall rose together.
Everything to be done will be done.

Is there a Santa Claus?

Question marks are placed inside quotation marks when the punctuation is part of the quote:

“How many for dinner?” the Count asked.

Question marks are placed outside quotation marks if the quote is not a question:

Who said, “Damn the torpedoes”?

Indirect questions and requests do not take question marks:

The countess asked if she could be excused.
Will you try to be on time.

Interrogative elements within a entence take question marks:

Do you promise to be on time? with shoes shined? and smile in place?

A question mark enclosed in parentheses indicate doubt or uncertainty:

The Countess claims to be 39, but her drivers license is dated 1905 (?).

“I am tired,” sighed the Countess.
“No wonder,” replied the Count, “you haven’t been home for nights.”

Commas and periods are enclosed within the quotation marks:

“Well,” she answered, “my energy level is depressed.”

Colons and semicolons go outside the quotation marks:

“You can help yourself as follows”: said the Count, “regular sleep, fresh fruits and vegetables, and more exercise.”
“Easy to say”; she shot back, “not easily done.”

Dashes, exclamation points, and question marks are enclosed within quotation marks when they are part of the quote only. They fall outside the quotation marks if they apply to the entire sentence.

“Why do you ignore my advice?” he asked.
Did the Count say, “ignore”?
“Get a grip!” he suggested.
“Regular sleep”; the old fool!
“Burn the candle at both ends –“ he murmured.
A sudden cry – “Fire!”, split the night.

Quotation marks enclose titles of songs, short stories, and division of major works:

Hemingway’s “Big Two-Hearted River” was first published in This Quarter, Vol 1 (May, 1925).

Titles of books, plays, epic poems, albums, and motion pictures do not take quotations marks -- they are italicized.

Quotation marks or italics may be used to designate specific words:

Please circle either “have” or “have not”.

Quotation marks are not used for indirect quotations:

He said he was working late.

Quotation marks are not used after known as, so-called, or similar designators:

Count Dracula was known as the Count of Darkness.

Quotation marks are used at the beginning of successive quoted paragraphs, but only at the end of the last paragraph:  (Note there is no quotation mark after harping).

“I simply can’t abide this constant harping.
“When we cane here from Moldavia, you promised things would change for the better.”

Long quotes set off from body text are not enclosed in quotation marks:

For centuries now, fathers have been repeating Polonius’ advice to his son:
Neither a borrower not a lender be; for loan oft loses both itself and friend, and borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry.

Single quotation marks enclose a quote within q quote:

“Did I just hear you say, ‘Burn the candle’, and then make plans for another party?”

Many are called; few are chosen.
Vampires die a thousand deaths; their victims only one.

Semicolons are used to separate clauses, phrases, or lists containing commas:

The elections were concluded with the following results: Count Dracula, Vampire in Chief; Countess Dracula, Vice Vampire; Bluebeard, Sergeant at Arms.
The Countess practiced flight, bat stunts, and howling; until she was blue in the face.

Semicolons are used with connecting adverbs or phrases including: however, therefore, accordingly, for example, for instance, furthermore, moreover, etc.:

The Countess was disappointed in the election results; however, she accepted the will of the majority.
Time travel is difficult to induce; moreover, it’s dangerous.

The Count and the Countess were on the committee.
The Count waschairman.
Each vampire has one vote.
All the vampires have a vote.
Either the count or the Countess is chairperson.
Neither the Count, nor the voters were satisfied.
The count, as well as the voters, was unhappy.
Half the voters were unhappy.
One third of the vote was invalid.
Fifty dollars was the usual bribe.

Collective nouns are singular if they designate a single entity; plural if they designate a group. British usage more often selects the plural:

Boeing is an American aircraft builder.
Short Brothers build British aircraft.
The jury has returned.
The jury have returned.

Verb tense: past, present, future; is usually apparent. Shall, will, should, would, lie, and lay sometimes cause uncertainty.

Will is used for both future tense and intention:

“I will be heard.” the Countess stated.
“You will have your turn.” the Count replied.

Shall still carries emphasis for intention:

“I shall return!”

Shall is used in first person requests:

Shall we gather . . .

Will is used in second and third person requests:

Will all those who wish . . .

Should I used to designate obligation or in a conditional sense with it:

“I should take better care of myself.” she said
“If I should die before I wake,”

Would is used to designate habitual action, strong desire, request, preference, or possibility:

He would stroll on summer evenings.
Would that I could soothe your pain.
Would you please stop?
I would rather die.
I would if I could.

Lie is an intransitive verb (never takes an object. It means to recline or assume a position. Tenses are lie, lying, lay, and lain.

I think I’ll lie down.
I have been lying here.
Why not lay down?
I could have lain there all night.

Lay is a transitive verb (requires an object).  It means to place something in a position, (or to produce an egg). Tenses are lay, laying, and laid:

Please lay down the gun.
The gun was laying there.
I laid down the gun
That myth has been laid to rest.

Accept is a verb meaning to receive.
Except is a preposition indicating other than or only.

Advice – Advise

Advice is a noun referring to information or a suggestion.
Advise is a verb referring to the act of giving advice.

Affect – Effect

Affect is a verb meaning to cause an effect or to simulate.
Effect is a verb meaning to bring about or a noun meaning result.

Alter – Altar

Alter is a verb meaning to change.
Altar is a noun with religious connotation meaning a raised platform.

Allusion – Illusion – Elusion

Allusion is an indirect reference; from the verb allude.
Illusion is a false appearance or effect.
Elusion is an evasion or escape; from the verb elude.

Berth – Birth

Berth is a place where boats park or people sleep.
Birth is the emergency of new life.

Bi – Semi

Bi or two indicates coming every two (weeks, months, years).
Semi or half indicates coming twice per (week, month, year).

Born – Borne

Born refers to birth.
Borne means carried or endured

Capital – Capitol

Capital indicates money, punishment, a seat of government or an upper case letter.
Capitol is a building or group of buildings.

Censor – Censure

Censor is a verb meaning to examine for objectionable content or a noun indicating the examiner.
Censure is a vote of condemnation.

Cite – Site

Cite is a verb meaning to call forth or to refer to.
Site is a physical location.

Complement – Compliment

Complement means that which renders something complete.
Compliment is an expression of admiration.

Conscience – Conscious

Conscience is the sense of morality.
Conscious is a state of awareness.

Counsel – Council

Counsel is advice or an advising lawyer.
Council is a group for consultation or advice.

Desert – Dessert

Desert is a noun meaning a barren or desolate area, especially a dry, often sandy region of little rainfall, extreme temperatures, and sparse vegetation.
Dessert is a noun usually meaning usually sweet course or dish, as of fruit, ice cream, or pastry, served at the end of a meal.

Device – Devise

Device is a noun indicating a thing conceived for a purpose.
Devise is a verb meaning to conceive for a purpose.

Economic – Economical

Economic refers broadly to the production of goods and services. (adjective)
Economical means efficient or not wasteful. (adjective)

Eminent – Imminent

Eminent means outstanding.
Imminent means about to happen.

Ensure – Insure

Ensure is a verb referring to acts intended to produce a desired result.
Insure is a verb referring to protection against some condition or event.

Its – It’s

Its is a possessive pronoun.
It’s is a contraction for it is.

Later – Latter

Later is the comparative of late and applies to time.
Latter means of more recent occurrence or the last mentioned in a group.

Morale – Morale

Moral is an adjective referring to behavior or a noun indicating the lesson to be learned.
Morale is a noun indicating mental and emotional condition.

Past – Passed

Past is a noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition referring to time or distance.
Passed is the past tense of the verb to pass.

Personal – Personnel

Personal is an adjective indicating individual use or a noun indicating a paragraph about an individual.
Personnel is a noun indicating a group of people.

Precede – Proceed

Precede means to come ahead of in time or distance.
Proceed means to come forth, continue, or go on.

Principal – Principle

Principal is a noun indicating a leader or a sum of money.
Principle is a noun or an adjective indicating a moral kernel or describing the main or chief.

Prophecy – Prophesy

Prophecy is a noun indicating that which is foretold.
Prophesy is a verb meaning to foretell.

Sheathe – Sheath

Sheathe is a verb meaning to enclose in a case.
Sheath is a noun indicating a close fitting case.

Sit – Set

People sit.
Objects are set.

Stationary – Stationery

Stationary is an adjective describing lack of motion.
Stationery is a noun indicating writing materials.

Strait – Straight

Strait is a noun indicating a narrow passage.
Straight is an adjective describing lack of curvature.

Than – Then

Than is a conjunction or a preposition designating comparison.
Then is an adverb, an adjective, or a noun relating to time.

Whose – Who’s

Whose is a possessive pronoun.
Who’s is a contraction for who is.